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I myself was always confused why $\ce{H3O^+}$ is so well-known and yet almost nobody talks of $\ce{H4O^2+}$. I mean, $\ce{H3O^+}$ still has a lone pair, right? Why can't another proton just latch onto that? Adding to the confusion, $\ce{H4O^2+}$ is very similar to $\ce{NH4+}$, which again is extremely well-known. Even further, the methanium cation $\ce{CH5+}$...
34
In addition to the general rules of how electronic configurations of atoms and ions are calculated, the elements from the d-block (aka the transition metals) obey one special rule:
In general, electrons are removed from the valence-shell s-orbitals before they are removed from valence d-orbitals when transition metals are ionized.
(I took this ...
34
Crystals have inspired a great many chemists because they are fascinating for a good reason. Not only are they aesthetically pleasing, but they serve as an excellent subject to tour a variety of theoretical subjects important for understanding high-level chemistry.
Crystalline materials are made up of periodic structures. We’re only going to primarily focus ...
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Actually, in theory almost all of the elements can be found with both positive and negative oxidation numbers: it's just a matter of finding a system with the proper reagents and conditions to force it. If you isolate chemical species which have a very strong tendency of displaying some specific behaviour (accepting electrons, donating electrons, ...
33
When you taste salt, you're not pushing crystalline $\ce{NaCl}$ into your taste buds. It dissolves in your saliva and dissociates. When one tastes salt, the saltiness taste receptors respond specifically to the sodium cation. That type of taste receptor is a cation channel. This is why lithium and potassium cations also taste salty (though they also ...
32
Yes, cations always have a positive charge and anions always have a negative one.
The difficulty is that the term cathode and anode do not always correspond to the same pole. The cathode is that pole of an electrolytic/electrochemical cell where reduction takes place (cathodic reduction) while the anode is where oxidation takes place (anodic oxidation). ...
26
First of all, let me state the obvious: Phosphorus is awesome.
After we got that out of the way we can focus on why.
There are many different modifications of phosphorus in nature. With increasing thermodynamic stability they are $$\ce{P_{white} -> P_{red} -> P_{violet} -> P_{black}}.$$
Apart from this there are many low molecular different ...
23
In addition to entropid's answer, let's remember why we invoke the hydronium ion $\ce{H3O+}$ in the first place.
We use $\ce{H3O+}$ as a shorthand for $\ce{H+(aq)}$, which looks more like protonated water clusters of the generic formula $\ce{H+.(H2O)_{$n$}}\equiv \ce{H_{$2n+1$}O_{$n$}+}$.
Almost ten years ago, a very interesting paper appeared in Science ...
22
Actually, the initial theories before Lewis suggested that $\ce{H+}$ is the cause of acidity. However, it soon turned up that an ion as small as the nucleus of hydrogen (you may simply call it a proton) can't be created in low energy reactions due to its high polarising power. So, $\ce{H+}$ is though the cause of acidic nature in aqueous solutions, $\ce{H+}$ ...
21
Silver is not as inert as gold. Tarnish is the name we give to the phenomenon when silver metal is oxidized and becomes a salt. Surfaces made of silver tend to disinfect themselves pretty quickly. As for disinfecting water poured into a silver cup, I imagine that would take a little longer since you have to wait for silver to diffuse away from the surface ...
21
In the comment to my previous answer, you asked for a theoretical reason for the solubilities, not considering energy data. Since I know from energy considerations that the issue is not the solvation of the anions, I can present a reason based on the strength of the ionic bond in the two compounds. This reference (as well as others) states the bonding in $\...
20
These species usually do not exist in nature, but they can be synthesized.
Silver has been reduced in liquid ammonia to give $\ce{Ag-}$.
A lot of anionic metal carbonyl complexes $\ce{M(CO)_{n}^{m-}}$ have been synthesized:
-1
$\ce{[V(CO)6]-}$, $\ce{[Nb(CO)6]-}$, $\ce{[Ta(CO)6]-}$, $\ce{[Mn(CO)5]-}$, $\ce{[Ir(CO)4]-}$, $\ce{[Co(CO)4]-}$, $\ce{[Rh(CO)4]-}$...
answered Mar 16 '15 at 9:11
Klaus-Dieter Warzecha
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There is no chemical difference, only a psychological one: how do you think about it. They are both the same thing, but many people associate $\ce{H+}$ ions with chemical reactions and protons with particle physics.
A hydrogen atom has one electron and a proton, no neutron. Therefore $\ce{H+}$ is just a proton.
That is why acids are sometimes referred as ...
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Interesting question. It is much less studied and reported on than the case of non-classical carbocations, but I did find a few papers. Brown and Occolowitz (Brown, J. M.; Occolowitz, J. L. Chem. Commun. 1965, 376–377) reported that deuterated bicyclo[3.2.1]octa-2,6-diene 1b, below, undergoes base-catalysed de-deuteration (potassium tert-butoxide in DMSO) to ...
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The formation of bonds nearly always leads to a decrease in energy. This is desirable, since less energy $\implies$ stability, so wherever it is possible, bonds tend to form.
$\ce{H+}$ has an empty $s$ orbital. $\ce{H2O{:}}$ has a lone pair. These easily form something akin to a dative bond ($\ce{H2O{:}\bond{->}H+}$), giving $\ce{H3O+}$. Note that there ...
18
Usually not. Boiling point rarely exceeds 4-5 thousands kelvin. A typical ionic bound energy is about 5 eV. 1 eV is roughly 11 thousands kelvin, so ions in low-temperature vapors are in molecules. When temperature becomes enough to break ionic molecules, it is enough to strip one-two electrons from atoms, so hight-temperature vapors will be plasma with ...
17
The existence of $\ce{H4O^{2+}}$ has been inferred from hydrogen/deuterium isotopic exchange monitored through $\ce{^{17}O}$ NMR spectroscopy in the most extremely acidic condensed phase superacid we can make, fluoroantimonic acid ($\ce{HF:SbF5}$ or $\ce{HSbF6}$). It seems that even the slightly weaker but still very much superacidic magic acid $\ce{HSO3F:...
16
Charge separation at waterfalls with airborne ions, resulting in a potential between the base of the waterfall and the surrounding air, is a phenomenon examined by Philipp Lenard (Über die Elektrizität der Wasserfälle, Ann Phys (Leipz), 1892, 46, 584–636).
The effect is real and more recent field studies, such as Characterization of ions at Alpine ...
answered Dec 28 '14 at 16:28
Klaus-Dieter Warzecha
40.3k7 gold badges78 silver badges142 bronze badges
16
Yes free $\ce{H+}$ ions, protons, really exist.
Protons are constantly emanating from the sun and reaching Earth.
The proton flux is continuously monitored by satellite.
However, in a solution such as water, instead of bare $\ce{H+}$ ions, they are $\ce{H3O+}$ or larger ions such as $\ce{H5O2+}$ or $\ce{H9O4+}$.
When $\ce{HCl}$ dissolves, the ...
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From what I was taught in Middle-school, cations are those ions that
move towards the cathode, likewise anions are those ions which move
towards the anode.
Nope, the definitions are as follows (from the IUPAC Goldbook):
cation
A monoatomic or polyatomic species having one or more elementary charges of the proton.
anion
A monoatomic or ...
15
Aromatic cations like the tropylium cation ($\ce{C7H7+}$)[1] or the cyclopropenyl cation ($\ce{C3H3+}$)[2] can coordinate to metals, creating sandwich or half-sandwich compounds. The positive charge is shared by all carbon atoms of the rings.
Anderson, J. E.; Maher, E. T.; Kool, L. B. Electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical properties of the titanium ...
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Apart from the methods, Ringo already described, you can do a few other tests.
Aluminium
This is loosely translated from the German chemgapedia.de. Look at the pretty pictures.
Probably the easiest test you can do is reacting it with Morin in ethanoic acidic medium. It forms a yellow-green chelate complex, which has strong fluorescence under UV light. The ...
15
Short version:
We don't call bonds "physical", there are chemical bonds and other types of interactions between particles. The chemical bonds are classified this way because they make up molecules, salts, polymers and such, which are the materials chemists are interested in studying, and not particularly because of their sub-atomic/electrostatic ...
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I'm afraid this is rather a non-answer (or why is it so difficult to answer this)...
Pretty much all nitrates are soluble. This is often explained by the exceptionally good delocalization of the negative charge.
On the other hand, silver salts in general aren't well soluble (I recall only fluoride, nitrate and perchlorate as soluble. Sulfate, carbonate, ...
14
The nitroso ligand ($\ce{NO^+}$) is also one of the most commonly occurring positively charged ligands.
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Of course you can take all the electrons off an atom - it is then called "fully stripped" in atomic physics. You don't need to do it to an entire mole, mind you. In accelerators one would send energetic neon ions through a background gas or a thin foil, and the interactions will result in various charge states coming out, up to and including fully stripped.
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In chemistry ask "why" only after you ask "if".
Given a sufficiently strong superacidic medium, $\ce{H3O^+}$ can be protonated to $\ce{H4O^{2+}}$. Evidence for this reaction, by studying isotopic exchange in a $\ce{HF + SbF5 +SO2}$ solvent, is given here.
$\ce{H4O^{2+}}$ is, of course, a powerful protic acid, and it would be leveled to something weaker, ...
13
This can arise due to ion-ion interactions brought on by Coulombic fields.
A proper explanation is rooted in transport phenomena. Unfortunately chemists are largely not taught this, but chemical engineers do get the opportunity.
Under standard conditions, ions in a solution will take a random walk during diffusion. This results in no net movement of our ...
13
General remark: get a bit of lead (metal or salt - whatever you look for) to have a positive control for your experiments.
More non-chemical tests for lead (metal):
lead is soft: you can cut/scrape it quite easily with a normal knife.
sheets of lead are easily bent, and they stay so.
For bigger pieces: Hammering on it would leave a rather big impression ...
13
Protons definitely participate in chemical reactions. Free protons are generally not present in liquid water because a free proton is extremely reactive, but in the upper atmosphere or in other situations where the density of matter is low there can be free protons which participate in chemical reactions.
However, I completely agree with Jori that an ...
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